Full Metal Jacket

Meaning and purpose can be defined depending on the reader and the author that is defining it. The meaning and purpose of any form of literature is the main point of the piece of work, why it was created and what the author wants the reader to understand or get from his or her work. As for the movie Full Metal Jacket, the director, Stanley Kubrick, wanted to have a combination of comedy as well as a sense of realization when it comes to a soldier becoming a marine and what it takes to be one.The characters throughout the movie each show a different way of nderstanding and dealing with the problems that they had to quickly overcome. Full Metal Jacket is a movie that shows the different roles and stages of the marines that were stationed in the Vietnam War. The first half of the movie had an entertaining way of showing the audience how they were trained and how they learned that they were indeed â€Å"born to kill†. The main purpose of the first part of the movie was to show the audience what the soldiers had to go through first in order to make it as a marine.It had to be a hard as well as somewhat brutal and life-changing experience n order for them to be ready to become the killing machines that they were forced to be. The changes that the characters have shown make the second half of the movie very different in terms of their attitudes, what each soldier viewed as right and wrong, as well as the events that take place throughout the movie. This part of Full Metal Jacket was geared more towards the actual Vietnam War and revealed the reasons as to why they had to become heartless in a way during their training.Throughout the course of the war, some of the soldiers slowly but surely slipped out f their sanity and become cold-hearted killers in order to survive themselves. Each marine in Full Metal Jacket had to be able to prove that they were worthy enough to take on certain obstacles in the first half of the movie, such as emotional and mental hazing. S tanley Kubrick made sure to incorporate as much of the hazing as possible within the first half of the movie in order to show the audience how much work each soldier had to put into the beginning of their Journey into becoming a marine.If they could not take control of the rate of hazing they received it would be seen as a eakness, therefore proving that they are not ready for the war. For example, Pyle who was a soldier that as overweight clumsy and slow-witted, could not take the stress and harassment that came with the training of becoming a marine and he could not endure the embarrassment that was thrown at him every time he did something wrong, which in turn made him decide to commit suicide as well as murder Gunnery Sergeant Hartman, the drill instructor who trains the recruits in order to turn them into marines.Gunnery Sergeant Hartman seemed to have caused ll of the anger and frustration that Pyle had to go through, therefore Pyle's actions proved to the audience and to the marines that were involved, that not everyone can make it as a marine and may end up losing their sanity over it. The whole point of allowing the audience to view this is to reinforce the level of maturity that would be required to fully understand the troubles that comes with being a marine.The first half of Full Metal Jacket mainly focuses on how much a person can take while preparing for war, being in war, and knowing how to act and react to certain issues and perceived throughout the movie. In The Green Berets, Sargent Peterson, a Special Forces sergeant, quickly realized that he needed to make sure that Hamchunk, a homeless Vietnamese child, was safe and well accounted for when their base was being attacked. This quick form of action shows the audience that he was well trained and knew exactly what to do and when to do it.Full Metal Jacket revealed other ways of bringing out a characters sense of maturity and therefore had a different aspect compared to that scene, and basicall y the entire movie of The Green Berets. Full Metal Jacket was meant to make the audience completely understand hy the soldiers had to go through training the way that they did. It all comes together once the audience sees firsthand what can happen when a soldier loses his focus or is not fully prepared for what may happen next.The series of events that happens during the second half of the movie could make or break anyone who may not be tough enough to endure all of the negativity. Full Metal Jacket is supposed to be an eye opener and should cause a sense of realization for the audience. In the scene where Doc Jay and Eight Ball, two very brave marines, were being attacked by a niper, Animal Mother, a tough marine, did everything he could think of doing in order to try and save his dying friends, even though he knew that there was no chance of their survival.Regardless, Animal Mother went out alone, against his direct orders, to try and find the sniper and kill her in retaliation. G ranted, he could not do it alone, he called the rest of the soldiers to try and track her down. Once they found her, they shot her, made her suffer in pain for a little bit and then killed her. In a normal world, doing these actions would seem horrific and Just not right, but due to heir previous training and sudden attack from this woman, the soldiers were forced to murder this woman and left her there.This type of action or retaliation enforces the moral or immorality that ties in within the movie. Murdering the sniper, especially her being a woman, opens up a more intriguing way of the audience socially analyzing the situation. Making the audience decide whether or not murdering her and allowing her to suffer was acceptable or hard to accept due to her being a woman. As for the soldiers, this decision was made easily and as the sniper as laying down suffering, the audience could easily see the reactions that each marine made, showing their different views on their daily lives.Eac h soldier had their own morals and values compared to other soldiers. Obviously, each soldier has his own personality which brings a different outlook on what it is that they have to do, and how they are supposed to do it. Each soldier must fulfill their mission, and do what they are instructed to do. In Full Metal Jacket, the soldiers seemed to have similar values, and seem to have been brought up or trained almost identically. Due o the first half of the movie where they had been trained to know and love their rifles and to be ready to shoot and kill whatever was not considered one of them..Every soldier knew what they had to do and they were all comfortable when it came to killing the enemy and possibly sacrificing themselves in the process. Unlike Full Metal Jacket, in the movie Platoon, Sometimes the soldiers take their main source of responsibility and manipulate it. For instance, some of the soldiers took a young girl from the village that they took over and tried to rape her in order to satisfy their ersonal needs, until Chris, the main character as well as the marine who decided to human being and should not be raped Just because of her unfortunate circumstances.This scene showed the audience how some soldiers will have the wrong mentality due to their current hectic lifestyles, while other soldiers know and remember their rights and wrongs from â€Å"back home† when it comes to doing things that they can personally control. Full Metal Jacket seemed to have been made for the audience to view and understand the troubles and obstacles that each soldier has to o through beginning from his training all the way through his actual fght in the war.The audience is supposed to learn and begin to understand how the soldiers are supposed to be trained in order for them to make it during the war, or in order to know what to do to help whoever is directly associated with the war. Stanley Kubrick wanted to open up the eyes of the â€Å"outside world† and allow people to realize what each marine has to go through and their purpose for becoming a marine. They are not always out and about trying to rape and murder every woman they encounter as well as taking over everything that they see. There is a process that each soldier must go through in order to make it where they need to be.Full Metal Jacket compared to Platoon and The Green Berets makes the audience see both sides of a soldiers' life whereas the other two movies only show the second half of the soldiers' life when he is already trained and in the battle field. The other two movies don't show how the soldiers came up to where they are now, it reveals only what they have already accomplished within themselves, and they already have their own views on life depending on the amount of negative series of events that they have encountered. Full Metal Jacket has more than one meaning, and more than one purpose.Stanley Kubrick wanted to make sure that the audience was able to inter pret and take back with them the struggles and the achievements of a marine. What it takes to become one and what it takes to remain one at all times during the hardships of being in a war. Due to that, the movie seemed as if it should have been two separate movies, which makes it unique, compared to The Green Berets and Platoon where each movie was based solely on the war. Although, all three movies showed the different kinds of ttitudes that evolved into a marine as they each evolved or became a different person whilst being a part of the war.Some characters showed emotion while some didn't show any emotion at all, displaying the different levels of maturity that each marine must have. Displaying the different emotions was meant to allow the audience to see the war in different aspects based on certain marines in the movies. Full Metal Jacket allowed the audience to watch the marines as they evolved from viewing things in different ways. Regardless, the movie was supposed to be a sense of realization and knowledge.

Financial Issues for Financing SMEs in Pakistan Essay

The small and medium sector enterprises are considered an impetus to economic growth in any country since these enterprises are mostly labour intensive and they tend to boost the employment more than any other sector. The government of Pakistan has identified the SME sector as one of the leading sectors along with agriculture and construction that can generate employment and contribute to overall economic growth. This sector in Pakistan contributes over 30 percent of the gross domestic product, 25 percent in export earnings, and 35 percent in manufacturing value addition. As per industry reports there are approximately 3. 2 million economic establishments across the country of which the SME sector contributes to 90 percent of all private enterprises employing almost 78 percent of the non-agricultural labour force. The sustained growth of this sector in Pakistan is restrained by a number of factors that include shortage of skills, inadequate leadership and management qualities, scarcity of capital goods, lack of structured data on the sector, resistance to change and difficulties in marketing products. But the biggest challenge facing the SME sector in Pakistan is the lack of adequate financing facilities. The limited access to credit has impaired the growth of this sector considerably. The banks are averse to taking risks in extending finance to the small and medium enterprises. The larger corporations face no such difficulty since the financing institutions have minimized risk due to their larger scales of operation and higher credibility in the market. The SME sectors are unable to provide adequate collateral in addition to the lack of adequate technical and managerial know-how that may affect the profitability of the business venture. For the purpose of this study the researcher has identified three prominent areas that influence the credit lending policy of financing institutions to the SME sector in Pakistan. These are political, legal and economic challenges facing the financial institutions. Statement of Objectives The Pakistan economy comprises mainly of the SMEs as suggested by the recent statistics outlined in the previous section. However, the sector suffers from a number of weaknesses that have constrained its development to its full potential. The SME sector does not have adequate access to finance from the formal sectors like large private banking corporations and financial institutions. They have to rely mainly on the credit facilities from the informal sector. The research paper intends to analyse the SME sector in Pakistan with emphasis on its growth over the past few years, the impact of this sector on the overall economic development, and the policy adopted by the government of Pakistan towards the sustainable growth of this sector. It will highlight the role of major financing institutions like International Finance Corporation, Asian Development Bank, and the State Bank of Pakistan to boost the SME sector in the country. The paper will aim to provide answers to discussion objectives raised by study of the financial strategies of the funding institutions – the challenges and risk implications of financing small and medium enterprises. The objectives identified are summarised below: †¢ What are the factors that contribute to the overall financing of businesses in Pakistan? †¢ How does the political and legal environment affect the credit lending policy of the financial institutions in Pakistan? †¢ What strategies and policies are being adopted by the government of Pakistan to combat these issues? The paper proposes to analyse the economic, legal and political environment factors that simulates the lending policy of the financing institutions in Pakistan. The study identifies the lack of proper regulatory environment that restricts the banks’ operations in terms of providing finance to the borrower. The high rate of failures of business enterprises due to slumps in the market; institutional malpractices, political upheavals and damaging acts by the labour unions have presented huge risks for the credit lending institutions. In addition to insufficient and low quality production to meet demands of local and international markets, deficit in balance of payments, and increasing unemployment have increased the risk potential for the SME sector. Research Methodology The research paper will comprehensively review the SME sector in Pakistan highlighting the market statistics, trends and policies affecting the credit availability. The study will focus on the major points tabulated below: †¢ Research on the background of SMEs in Pakistan †¢ Identify the various sources of finance available for the small and medium enterprises †¢ Analyse the political, economic and legal environment factors that influence the industry segment. †¢ Research the implications of these factors on the credit lending policy of the financial institutions. †¢ Analyse the steps taken by the government in the past few years towards meeting these challenges. †¢ Analyse the roles of the financial and regulatory bodies in the growth and development of the SME sector. †¢ Provide recommendations to the SME policy within the scope of the study objectives. The paper will also discuss the SME policy that is being followed by the Government of Pakistan through its regulating body the Small and Medium Enterprise Development Authority (SMEDA). The SME policy adopted in the past laid over-emphasis on the industrial and manufacturing activities with little focus on the service sectors. The schemes designed for small enterprise development lacked focus and did not address the core issues of enterprise development and employment growth. Political manipulation and interference led to accrual of bad loans for banks and loss of public funds. Overall they contributed little to economic growth and did very little for the employment issues. These were some of the past initiatives that led to a cautious approach by the banks and financial institutions while lending credit to the small and medium enterprises in Pakistan. Recent years have seen a significant swing in the policy of the Pakistan government towards the development and growth of this sector. The Small and Medium Enterprises Development Authority was established to boost the development of SMEs and monitor their interests with an eye to encourage and facilitate the growth of such enterprises. The paper will analyse the role of SMEDA in the past few years, the initiatives taken and the policy changes that made an impact on the SME sector. The research will evaluate the steps taken by this regulatory body to counter the challenges posed by the political, economic and legal environment to the financing of the SME sector. â€Å"The most significant step taken by the Government of Pakistan for the development of SMEs was the establishment of the Small and Medium Enterprise Bank (SME bank) to arrange for speedy financial assistance. † (Kaiser H. Naseem, the president of SME bank in an interview to PAGE). In addition to the setting up of the SME bank, Pakistan witnessed impressive changes in the SME financing sector. Global institutions like International Finance Corporation (IFC) are playing a major role in aiding the SME sector in Pakistan. It is observed by these institutions that the country needs to provide a conducive and enabling environment for SMEs to operate. They require support and assistance in order to achieve their maximum potential. Organisations like SMEDA can play a critical role in business development process, advisory support, and managerial training of SMEs. The commercial banks and financing institutions need to develop dedicated segment for servicing the SMEs. The banking institutions based on Islamic principles are providing interest free financial assistance to this sector. Based on such facts the research will outline the policies and recommendations that will help in structuring the financing of the small and medium enterprises. The research will be based on various journals, Internet articles, and textbooks related to the Small and Medium Enterprise sector in Pakistan. Explanation of Research Design The research will be based on two principal source types – qualitative and quantitative research. Data collection method: Qualitative research comprising of interviews and data gathered from other sources. The research employs data gathered from the SMEs in Pakistan taken from online resources and printed materials in the form of journals, newspaper articles and textbooks. Quantitative research that constitutes of statistical data collected from financial institutions. The study will be based on the statistical data of finance to SME sector in Pakistan collected for the past five years. This data will assist in analysing the financing trends in the recent years and help in projecting growth trends in the sector. Data processing and analysis: The outcome of the research conducted on the subject matter from various sources mentioned above will be written as a descriptive conclusion of the study conducted. The processed statistical data will be presented as graphs and pie charts for better understanding. Validity, reliability and limitations: As the information collected from various journals, newspaper reports and articles reflect the current market trend; the analysis based on the findings will be accurate and reliable. Timetable of research activities: Appendices The study will make use of facts and figures available from the published reports of State Bank of Pakistan, World Bank, Asian Development Bank, International Finance Corporation, SME Bank of Pakistan, SMEDA and other journals released by the government of Pakistan on the subject matter. References: 1. SME led Economic Growth – Creating Jobs and Reducing Poverty, Ministry of Industries, Production and Special Initiatives, Government of Pakistan – http://www. smeda. org/downloads/smepolicy2007. pdf – accessed on 2nd March 2008 2. Country overview – Pakistan, International Finance Corporation – http://ifcln001. worldbank. org/ifcext/mena. nsf/Content/Pakistan – accessed on 2nd March 2008 3. SME Sector Development (Program Loan): Pakistan, Asian Development Bank – http://www. adb. org/Documents/PIDs/34327013. asp – accessed on 2nd March 2008 4. Finance and Markets – SME Bank to play pivotal role, An interview with Kaiser H. Naseem, President SME Bank – http://www. pakistaneconomist. com/issue2002/issue5/f&m. htm – accessed on 2nd March 2008 5. SME Financing: Issues and Strategies, Ishrat Hussain – http://www. sbp. org. pk/about/speech/financial_sector/2005/SME_Financing_10_May_05. pdf – accessed on 2nd March 2008 6. SME Policy Development – Small and Medium Enterprise Development Authority – http://www. smeda. org/projects/SME-policy-development. html – accessed on 2nd March 2008 7. SME Sector, SME Bank – http://www. smebank. org/SME%20Sector. htm – accessed on 2nd March 2008 8. SME Financing: State Bank of Pakistan – http://www. sbp. org. pk/sme/index. htm – accessed on 2nd March 2008 9. President’s Address to SME Financing and Strategic Conference – http://presidentofpakistan. gov. pk/FilesSpeeches%5CPolicy%5C510200583259PMSME. pdf – accessed on 2nd March 2008 10. Pakistan announced SME policy for higher growth – http://developing8. org/page/news/17/8/2007/pakistan_announced_sme_policy_for_higher_growth – accessed on 2nd March 2008

Incentive Plans Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Incentive Plans - Research Paper Example Salary incentive plans are best suitable when organizations need to exercise greater control over the sales force in order to achieve organizational goals including the development of new market segments, excellence in customer services, and delivery of other support functions. In case of team selling activities, this incentive plan is more appropriate because it is very difficult for the management to identify individuals whose effort contributed to the sale. In addition, the method can be used in any situation where a flawless employee performance evaluation is not possible. From the perspective of a salesperson, the salary incentive plan is more secure because incentive rate does not change according to the sales volume fluctuation. In the words of Reinfeld (1996), employees who are working in the service sector are non-aggressive and they need a stable environment to perform their tasks effectively. From an employer perspective, this incentive plan is helpful for the organization to operate its business activities more efficiently as employees are not forced to increase the sales volume under this plan. Advantages As Reinfeld (1996) points out, high level of management control over the sales force is the most potential advantage of salary incentive plans; and this incentive plan can assure salespeople a steady and secure income. As the salary incentive is at a fixed rate, it is easy for the management to monitor and control its budgeting activities effectively. Another benefit of this plan is that it is very easy to understand. Equal treatment of employees assists the organization to avoid employee conflicts to a great extent. Under this plan, the company incurs relatively fixed sales costs, and this situation reduces the level of future uncertainty as well. Disadvantages Many companies claim that this plan would not improve employee productivity significantly as employees are paid regardless of the sales volume. The most notable demerit of this incentive p lan is that unproductive employees are paid for the effort of other productive employees. In other words, efficient and hardworking employees are not sufficiently paid for their extra effort. Under this incentive system, firms are often forced to exercise close supervision over their sales force. According to Reinfeld (1996), the salary incentive plan does not provide any incentive for a balanced sales mix. Commission plans Under the commission incentive system, payments are made on the basis of actual employee performance or sales volume. Since an employee’s productivity level rests with his/her own skills and efficiencies, this plan offers an unlimited incentive to employees. To be more specific, commission plans assist employees to determine their income level. Commission rates are determined by the organization. The commission plan is more appropriate when sales are promoted by individuals rather than the team effort. If the organization practices aggressive competition s trategies, commission incentive plans would be more suitable. Advantages According to Zenger and Marshall (1995), the most notable benefit of commission plans is that payment is directly linked to employee performance under this system. Commission incentive plans are very easy to be administered and commission rates can be easily computed. It provides employees with an opportunity to increase their earnings based on their performance.  

The administrative structure of public education in the state of Essay

The administrative structure of public education in the state of California - Essay Example 2) To establish a viable structure, by employing a superintendent, laying down guidelines for hiring other personnel, adopting appropriate policies and curriculum, establishing budget priorities and ensuring provision of facilities. The Board also gives direction for formulating and adopting collective bargaining agreements. 3) To provide support to the superintendent and staff to carry out their functions by providing good personnel management, making resources available, upholding district policies, and liasing between the public and school functionaries. 4) To ensure performance/ program/ financial accountability to the public. . The Board evaluates the superintendent, and sets guidelines for evaluation of other staff, periodically assesses the curriculum and student performance, and also does self-assessments. 5) To acts as community leader by meaningfully involving the community in educational programs; it communicates to them information on district policies/ programs. The Board stands as a link between the student and the community too. (School Board Leadership) Discussion Question (2) Briefly discuss a case or hearing that was presented at your local school board or in one of the court systems. What was the final decision Give your opinion and/or reason for supporting this decision. I refer to a case of 1981, Segraves v. State of California. (Sacramento Superior Court #278978) Although the case is more than twenty-five years old, the issue is current. It relates to the teaching of scientific evolution in the classroom, and its likely clash with the religious views of the students, and their right to their views (as enshrined in the US Constitution). Segraves' contention was that the discussion of the Theory of Evolution prevented his children and him from the free exercise of their religion. The court, however, "found that the California State Board of Education's Science Framework, as written and as qualified by its anti-dogmatism Policy, gave sufficient accommodation to the views of Segraves." (Matsumura & Mead, 2001). The Anti-dogmatism Policy insisted that scientific explanations in the class room focus on the 'how', and not 'ultimate cause', and that speculative statements concerning origins, "both in texts and in classes, should be presented conditionally, not dogmatically." (Matsumura & Mead, 2001) The court also ruled that all areas of science be covered by this Anti-dogmatism Policy. While I agree that science should be taught without dogmatism, it is also necessary that dogmatic adherence to religious beliefs do not prevent a child from acquiring scientific knowledge. Therefore, the judgement in this case was right, permitting openness in looking at scientific theories, and the evidence that was available to support them. *Prompt: Numerous Civil Rights Acts have covered a variety of topics that have influenced public education: unlawful employment practices, denial of benefits, equal rights, equal protection, and equal employment opportunities. Elaborate on a statement that I heard at a governor's conference which stated, "The Right to Read is a student's Civil Right" Explain how the above quote may be both a detriment and an asset to

Reflection paper Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 25

Reflection paper - Essay Example The outcome of these stressors is that these stressors decrease the quality of work, make an individual experience burnout and even disturbs the wok/life balance of an individual. Due to excessive work load, individuals spend extra time in their workplaces and at times they work late night hours. Due to this they do not get enough rest and their relationship with their family members deteriorate as the individual fails to provide them with enough time. Improved time management skills will help me in managing my workload in an effective and efficient manner. Development of time management skills will help in differentiating and prioritizing work in accordance to their deadlines. This will help in insuring that the work that needs to be completed first is completed on time and then the individual focused on the assignments that are to be completed later. One strategy that can be implemented to deal with workplace stress is to make changes to the lifestyle (Floyd 64). If an individual w ho is suffering from workload and lack of time decreases unproductive or unnecessary tasks from their life, the time saved can be used for work and family time. 2. Pick an organization with which you are well acquainted and list some areas needing change that could use an action research approach. Choose one of these areas and tell us how data could be collected. 2. The term action research is used to refer to the practice of research that is first conducted to identify a particular problem and then take actions to counter the problem. Action research is a continuous process because the process of research is conducted once again after a solution is implemented to identify how well the solution has worked and if further solutions are required to correct the problem. One organization that needs a change is Wal-Mart and the organization needs to make changes to its current human resource management

UCC and Common Law Case Scenarios - Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

UCC and Common Law Case Scenarios - - Essay Example Due to floods, Cereal Inc warehouse is flooded and cereals destroyed that result in the inability to supply as stated in the contract. However, soggy flakes is not damaged and supplies 10 bags to grocery Inc. Besides, before the delivery was made, Grocery Inc had requested to be supplied with a variety of cereals at its different stores. Due to the inconvenience Grocery Inc wants to turn down the supply and terminate the contract. Even though it is within their rights to be supplied with the cereals they had specified at different stores, a complication will arise if they cancel the supply and the contract. The supplier will protect themselves by using the gap-filling rule. In the contract, it is not specified what type of cereals to be supplied or where to be supplied. The gap can be used in the defense that Cereal Inc had the right to choose what to supply and where to deliver it. The gap-filling rule gives a party of the contract the possibility of concluding some aspects of the contract that are not specific. In this case, it was not articulate on the type of cereals to be supplied or the store they were to be delivered. Cereal Inc can use this as its defense as the cause of the damages was not deliberate and the fact that inability to make the supplies was not the intention at the time of signing the contract. The amicable way of dealing with this case is for both parties to have a consensus. Grocery Inc should not be in a hurry to terminate the contract and cancel the supplies. They should give Cereal Inc time to recover from the loss. Alternatively, the contract can be amended such that it is specific on the type of supplies and the destination. Tom had promised to sell his model trains to Harry once he retired. Harry prepared by building a house to store them and borrowed money to pay for them. However, when the time came Tom did not honor his promise. Tom was sued by Harry for breach of

Problems of adolescents Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Problems of adolescents - Research Paper Example Adolescent age usually begins from the age of thirteen and wind up at nineteen. This age bracket is usually referred to as the teenage period. Although this stage is short lived, it sis a period characterized by vigorous maximum physical growth, mental development and emotional maturity. Both the internal and external aspects of development are visible. In fact, nearly all the physiological changes of human growth are completed at this bracket. In common scenario, this group is known for emotional imbalance, naivety and an overwhelming quest for adventure. As their emotions starts to balance, it is impossible not to notice appreciable level of intelligence, reasoning, thinking and appreciating of the environment surrounding them. Their memory seems to be so fresh and intact always perceiving things out of the ordinary, strong concept of creativity, well acquaintance with group associations and generalization. An adolescent is always challenging and questioning every thing a bout exis tence but feels a great sense of pride of achievement and satisfaction should their views be recognized on a discussion forum or any topic. This period is also characterized by so much joy and happiness alongside aspirations and adventures they would never want to miss. One moment this lad is in such lovely mood and the next instance he/she bursts in tears .As their emotions experience development, it is believed this is the reason why most seem to have such imbalances (Clemente, 2009). At any level of social interaction, this group would do anything to outshine her/his peers as their feelings are at maximum. Fro then, there exists a universal internalized way of understanding feelings o others who also belong to the adolescence bracket. This understanding is readily exercise on the opposite sex who they feel so eager to interact with .Consequently, in their endeavor to win the admiration of the opposite sex, they display ego centered interactions however with some checked adjustmen ts in character to cover up their big ego. For an average adolescence, there exists a natural recognition of norms and values determined by the society and knowledge of moral respect of God and belief inexistence of heaven for good people (Adams, 2005). For any household with an adolescence amidst them understands that to this person, there is defined new era in interaction occasionally accompanied by rebellion, mood swings and switched attention from the family members to wards his/her peers. Parents only become very concerned when the new era practices becomes a negative aspect of growth i.e., occurring too frequently than those they observe from children of family friends. Parents constantly feel challenge by such an unbecoming behavior and some even become emotionally affected .It is thus important to establish the general causes of such behaviors by discussing the main problems associated with an adolescence age (Clemente, 2009). To understand these underlying problems then we must dwell on normalcy ands deviation from normalcy. To understand an onset of truancy, you will notice a continuous boredom. To cover up for such boredom, the adolescent may be tempted to engage in risky activities like stealing, driving without license, being involved in drug abuse, indiscriminant sexual exploitation and at the extreme engage in physical fights. However, the above are just symptoms of degeneration thus the paper attempts to dig deep into the root causes of these symptoms

Skills for Academic Learning in Law Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Skills for Academic Learning in Law - Essay Example FORMATIVE ASSESSMENT 2: 40101/02 1. HARD COPY RESEARCH a. FIND THE CASE OF REVILL v NEWBERY [1996] GIVE THE CITATION FOR THE CASE AND EXPLAIN WHAT IT MEANS BRIEFLY STATE WHAT THE LEGAL ISSUES IN THE CASE ARE Citations are in two forms. One is the paper form and the citation for the above case in paper form is: Revill v Newbery [1996] 1 All ER 291 and it contains the following: 1. the heading of the case; 2. the number of the volume; 3. number of pages; and 4. the year in which the case was decided. Several cases decided by the courts are not printed. The reason is to avoid the expenditure of typesetting and printing. Only very important cases are printed. When the cases decided by the courts were printed on the Internet an overflow of information ensued.This resulted in trying to find out a neutral way to cite a case. (World Legal Information Institute, WorldLII). This normally has the following informations: The year in which the case was decided The title of the court in an abbreviated form; and The number of the decision. Thus, the above case can be cited as: Revill v Newbery (1996) 2 WLR 239 Legal issues of the case: The issues in Revill v Newberry [1996] 1 All ER 291, is that an aged allowance possessor was sleeping in his hut with a scattergun, to put off thieves. On discovering the plaintiff, attempting to break in, he shot his gun via a hole in the shed, hurting the plaintiff. At first occurrence, the defendant effectively raised the justification of ex turpi to keep away from the claim. Conversely, the Court of Appeal approved the plaintiff's prayer, assenting that the defendant was neglectful to have shot blindly at body height, without a caution or even shooting a forewarning shot into the air, and that the response was...(World Legal Information Institute, WorldLII). The issues in Revill v Newberry [1996] 1 All ER 291, is that an aged allowance possessor was sleeping in his hut with a scattergun, to put off thieves. On discovering the plaintiff, attempting to break in, he shot his gun via a hole in the shed, hurting the plaintiff. At first occurrence, the defendant effectively raised the justification of ex turpi to keep away from the claim. Conversely, the Court of Appeal approved the plaintiff's prayer, assenting that the defendant was neglectful to have shot blindly at body height, without a caution or even shooting a forewarning shot into the air, and that the response was out of every section to the danger (http://www.lawteacher.net/tort-law/lecture-notes/liability-for-land-premises-lecture.php accessed on 27 October 2009). This case was filed by Mr. Major Dhillon for recovery of damages resulting in financial losses. The financial losses were due to a number of breaches of duty on the part of one or more of the defendant accountants. These accountants were his advisors between 1997 and 2004. Further Mr.

Sources of Finance Essay Example for Free

Sources of Finance Essay In this assignment, I am going to look at different ways to finance a new start-up business and also for existing businesses who want to expand in the future. After reading this, you will learn the costs of different sources of finance and also their advantages and disadvantages. A source of finance is divided into two sections which are short term and long term. Short term is often referred to money that is borrowed for up to 12 months. Many businesses would use this to fund day to day activities such as utility bills or staff wages etc. Long term is generally over one year and used for things such as buying property or expanding a business. In this assignment it is going to look at how existing businesses and new businesses will use these types of borrowing as a source of finance. Long term finance Owner’s capital refers to the amount of money the owner puts into the business themselves. This is regarded as long term finance as the money will stay with the business as long as it exists. This could be savings, money received in result of a redundancy payment or money left to them in a will. The advantage of this source is that it doesn’t have any interest because it’s the owner’s money so you don’t need to pay anyone back unlike bank loans. In comparison to loans, this is generally more convenient because you don’t need to worry about paying back the bank and the interest rates. This source is more flexible than others because there is no restriction on the money so the owner can spend it on whatever they like. However, the disadvantage of this would be if the business fails then you are likely to lose your investment. It also comes with an opportunity cost. This is defined as what you could have done with the money; for example, you were going to use it to buy a house but you contribute it to starting up a business, this is the opportunity cost. If businesses do not contribute the owner’s capital then it is unlikely they will receive any loans from banks or other investors. This is because if you were an investor and you saw a business that isn’t willing to take the risk and contribute their own money, you wouldn’t invest your own money in them. Depending on how much the owner’s capital is going to be, this can be mixed with bank loans to go towards a business start-up. For example, I am going to open a Chinese take-away and invest  £10,000 into the business but my priority is to buy  utensils and refurbish the building. I could use my investment into refurbishing and since I contribute my own money I could get a loan from the bank to buy my utensils. This source of finance is suitable for new businesses to get them up and running however it can also be used for existing businesses who want to expand. Venture capital is the money that is provided to businesses by investors. These investors are named venture capitalists who could either be a group of wealthy individuals or a company who make their money by investing on businesses. They are often seeking for new or growing businesses who they believe have potential and hope to develop them. There are some advantages for this source; it is a good option to new businesses especially for the ones who don’t have much operating history so it’s harder for them to secure a bank loan. The money the venture capitalists contribute is usually more than what banks are willing to lend. Businesses are also interested in but the contacts these wealthy people have which could help their business expand in many different ways. For example, in Dragons Den, Peter Jones offers  £50 000 to a business for 50% of the company which is 25% more than what the business was prepared to give away however with Peter being a wealthy and respectable entrepreneur they gave him what he wanted. They believe Peter has the contacts which could help their business expand rapidly. If a business could secure a venture capital, it is more beneficial than a bank loan because there are no interest rates however the disadvantage is you risk losing some independency to the investors. They calculate how much money they are willing to invest and the percentage by considering the risk and reward. Usually, a new business is considered high risk because they have limited operating history but if they are believed to have potential then the investors will ask for a high percentage of the business for it to achieve a high profitable reward. It is likely the venture capitalists will make decisions for the company. If businesses are willing to sacrifice part of their business then this source is recommended because it could broaden the company. Bank loans are regarded as long term finance because the money can be borrowed up to 25 years or longer in some circumstances. All loans have an  interest rate attached to them. The interest rate is often calculated by how much the business borrows. The more you borrow the more interest you are going to pay. For example, if I borrow  £9000 from Barclays bank, I will be charged 4.3% APR whereas if I borrow  £30000 I will be charged at 6.9% APR. It could affect your loan if the interest rates go up so more businesses take out a loan on a fixed rate of interest where they won’t be charge any extra costs if the interest rates increase. If a variable rate loan is taking out, the interest rates can change which makes it harder to manage finance. Bank loans could be used by new and existing businesses; a new business can use it to buy equipment and an existing business could use it to expand the company for example, buying new premises. An existing business will tend to be able to borrow more than a new business. This is because they have been operating for longer and banks generally find them more reputable. If these companies wish to borrow an excessive sum of money then extra security is needed to ensure the money is paid back. Often banks will ask the business to use their property as a security for the loan. It means if the business fails then the bank could recover the money from selling their property. This is usually referred as a second mortgage. Most businesses use this source to their advantage because it is convenient and the money could be borrowed for a lengthy period. For some businesses, it could be looked at as a better option than securing a venture capital because you aren’t losing a share of the business for money but you also have decision on where the money could be spend; you have more independency with the money. The disadvantage is the interest rate could be quite high whereas if an owner’s capital was available, a repayment is not necessary. Also, if your business fails and you have taken out a second mortgage you could lose your property. Generally, bank loans work out quite expensive in the long run however it is a good way to raise finance for your business. A mortgage is a loan used for purchasing a property and could be paid back in the space of 25 years or sometimes more. The property then becomes the borrower’s collateral which needs to be paid off as they agreed with the lenders. If there is a failure of payment then the lenders can repossess the property and sell it at an auction to recover the money. This source is common for both new and existing businesses that need a mortgage for their  work premises. The advantage of mortgages is the fact they are usually more manageable and affordable than renting because the repayments are spread out over a lengthy period. This also depends on the type of the property and other factors such as location and price. Here is an example, in 2008, house prices dropped in Northern Ireland; therefore buying a house was cheaper. In addition, getting a mortgage was easier and cheaper than renting. Also, once you have paid off your mortgage, you own the property and it could be worth far more than what you paid for it. Often, interest rates on mortgages are lower than a loan because the property is used as collateral. Mortgages fall into two main categories; fixed rate and various rates. Fixed rate is where the interest stays the same over a number of years and various rate means the interest can change. This source also comes with many disadvantages; it is not as flexible as renting because if you want to move out of the property, it is not as easy as cancelling a contract with your landlord, you will have to sell the property which can be difficult. Maintenance is one of the problems for instance, if the roof leaks you will have to fix it yourself whereas a rented property it can be repaired for you. The main disadvantage is that you have to keep up with your repayments or you can end up losing your property. For example, during the credit crunch there was many people made redundant and therefore they struggled to make repayments so their house was repossessed. Although the interest rate is lower on mortgages, it does carry high risk as you are repaying over a long period of time. For a new business it would be advisable to start off with a bank loan to establish a steady flow of finance into a business before considering a mortgage. Retained profits are defined as capital which is kept in the business. The owner(s) can decide what they want to do with the companies’ profits. This could be for personal use, paid out to shareholders as a dividend or withdrawn as wages for sole trader’s also known as owner’s drawings. If the owner decides not to touch this money it is referred to as ploughing back the profits or organic growth. This is regarded as important long term finance but only relates to existing businesses. There are many advantages of retained profits; the money which is left in the business rather than paid out as a dividend is the opportunity cost for shareholders. The money  is reinvested and helps the company expand and could be used for buying new equipment or machinery. It is an advantageous source of finance because it doesn’t have any interest rates attached. It also has a lot of flexibility because the company has control of what is left in the business and what is paid out to dividends. This source of finance has some disadvantages. It could lead to the company getting criticized for restricting the value of dividends and holding on too much money for the business. If retained profits don’t result in higher profit then it could cause arguments amongst shareholders and you risk losing them. The shareholders may think the money would be better in their own hands rather than the business. In order to use this source accordingly, you must maintain good relationships with the shareholders and show that the business has potential to succeed. This is highly recommended for existing businesses because as long as the company exist while making profits, money will be reinvested each day and it could help with the growth of the business. Selling assets is a common source of long term finance for an existing business. An asset is categorized as any item owned by a business or individual which could range from land to machinery. Business may sell some assets because they have no further need for them. By selling assets the company can raise money to fund other projects. For example; selling a JCB digger because there is limited work on in the construction site and it is taking up too much valuable space. These assets can turn into cash which could help the business with advertising or paying off debts. Often businesses sell a successful division of their business to another firm because they believe there is a declining market for their product or service. While it is still going good they will sell this in order to use the money to expand in a new and growing market. The advantage of selling an asset is you get your money back straight away. Generally, this is a cheaper source of financing your business unlike bank loans where you have to worry about the high interest rates. For many, selling an asset is a good way to reduce or eliminate debt. Although, this seems like a convenient method, the cost of selling assets must be considered. In some cases, you won’t receive full market value for the goods but this depends on how quick you want to sell them. The assets could grow in value faster than what you can yield  with the cash and also it could come with tax consequences. This means if you buy an asset and later sell it on for profit, you could be landed with what is called ‘Capital Gains Tax’. You could end up with less money than you expected. This financing source mostly applies to existing businesses because they would have built more assets than new businesses starting up and would most likely have more debt on their hands. For new businesses, getting a bank loan or owner’s capital would be more suitable. Overall; this is a recommended source of finance for existing businesses as it carries little risk in the procedure. This benefits a lot of businesses because they are usually selling something they no longer require, in order to use the money on something which can help their company grow or eliminate debt. For example, you are investing on a delivering service for your company and plan to get a loan for a van. Your warehouse has several forklifts so you would plan to sell one in order to buy a van. To conclude, you aren’t losing money because you are using the money from the asset to start a new service; to expand your business. Share capital is the capital of a company divided into equal amounts known as shares. There are two companies’ which share capital relate to which are private limited companies, (LTD’s) or public limited companies (PLC’s). In a private limited company, these shares are often sold to family firms but could be sold to family and friends. However, if they want to issue shares, they must go through an agreement with all the shareholders. On the other hand, a public limited company can sell shares on a stock exchange to members of the public. This means anyone could buy shares which results in them having a wider source of capital. A new business is usually classed as a private limited company and may have as little as two shareholders. However, if they expand over time and cannot issue any more shares they might consider about becoming a public limited company. This process is known as ‘floating the business’ which has to go through a number of administr ative and legal procedures. A public limited company can raise more because they can sell their shares on the stock exchange. If they want to expand their business but need  £100 million then they can sell  £100 million shares at the stock exchange for  £1 each. This needs to come with a prospectus which is very important because it gives the investors a better  understanding of the company before they commit to buying shares. You will tend to find information such as; how the business is managed, what does the business specialist in, etc. Businesses often use the services of a merchant bank such as Morgan Stanley or Merrill Lynch who specialize in share floatation. This means if all shares are not sold, they will buy them so the business can still raise the money they need. This is a type of insurance policy and you can imagine the cost it has attached to it. Share capital is attractive and very helpful in raising long term finance for both new and existing businesses. The main advantages are; you will have commitment from your shareholders because like the owner they also want to see the business succeed. In terms where a plc becomes successful then they will most likely sell more shares to the public. However, if there comes a time when they want to raise more money, they can issue cheaper shares to existing shareholders through a rights issue’. If the company is doing well, and needs money for expansion, this is a quick and cheap way of raising finance. In comparison to loans, this source is cheaper; all you have to do is pay the shareholders their dividends each year instead of repaying high interest on bank loans. This financing source is similar to venture capital; if you have the right business angels and venture capitalist, they can bring useful contacts, valuable skills and experience to your company. This could help with business strategy planning, new products ideas or expansion plans. Although, there are some disadvantages too. Depending on the investor, you may lose some independency of the decision making in your business. For a potential investor to want a share of your business they will want to see reports and forecasts of the company; you may have to provide information for the investor(s) to monitor. This can be time consuming and may take management focus away from core business activities. Overall, share capital is a secure way to raise finance for your company. The money which is invested will stay within the company as long as the company exists and if it is a growing company then it could get a good reputation selling shares through the stock exchange. Short term finance A Bank overdraft is when someone makes an agreement with the bank to spend  more than what they have in their account but the money will need to be paid back. This type of borrowing is common for both new and existing businesses that experience cash flow problems. The money a business receives from sales and the amount they spend is called cash flow. There are two types of overdrafts; authorized and unauthorized. An authorized overdraft is where you are allowed to borrow up to a limit agreed with the bank. An unauthorized overdraft is where you are exceeding your authorized overdraft limit or going below zero in your account without agreeing on an overdraft facility; this should be avoided at all costs. This source of finance does carry an interest rate but only for the amount overdrawn and the length of time overdrawn. For example, if an overdraft facility allows you to borrow up to  £5000; you need  £3000 on the 1st July to pay rent until you get a payment of  £4000 from a customer on the 4th July, you will only be charged interest rates on the  £3000 for 4 days you borrowed. Some banks will charge a fee for customers to use this facility. A bank overdraft is suitable for companies that need the money for a short period of time whether it’s for paying staff wages or utility bills. Although, they must ensure they have money coming in to cover the cost of the overdraft as it can carry high interest rates; usually higher than bank loans. It can help avoid cheques bouncing and returned direct debit. This is where there are insufficient funds in the account to make a payment. If this happens, the business will have to pay bank charges and it can also damage relationships with suppliers as they will see the business as untrustworthy and they may not want to supply them with any more stock. The main advantage of a bank overdraft is the fact that is there when you need it and doesn’t cost anything (except for a small fee). You only need to borrow what you need. It can also help maintain the cash flow within the company and allows the business to make essential payments while chasing their own payments. There are many disadvantages too, as mentioned before overdrafts can carry higher interest rates than bank loans which make them expensive for long term financing. In some cases, you may have to secure your business assets to get an overdraft and failing to make repayments can risk you losing your assets. The main disadvantage and probably most important one is, if you find yourself going over the overdraft limit it would be classed as an unauthorized overdraft where you will be charged high interest rates and bank charges. If the  business keeps using over their limit, it could damage their reputation with banks although they can get the limit raised but this is not advisable. If this is done repeatedly the banks will assume the business has financial issues and they can refuse further use of the overdraft service. This source of finance is useful if lending short term but a business should never rely on it. Trade credit is the time given to a business from the supplier to pay for their stock. It is used in business to business (B2B) transactions. Trade credit is usually 30 days although this can be different depending on the organization. If you agreed 30 days credit with your supplier, you can sell the stock and have the money in your bank account before you pay the supplier. This means you are getting an interest free loan for 30 days. Usually small suppliers prefer to sell their products only to one big company instead of many small companies; this makes payments more manageable. An example is Cravendale farm only sells their milk to Asda so they will get one invoice from them at the end of the credit period. This is better than having multiple invoices from different supermarkets which can make cash flow more difficult. However, big companies like Asda often use this to their advantage and pay the supplier back late. They usually get away with this because Cravendale farm know Asda are their only customers so they cannot afford to lose them. Trade credit is a very important source of finance and has many advantages. It does not carry any interest rates therefore it is better than using bank overdraft. It can save you from spending money in your account to buy stock and with that money you can use it elsewhere in the business. For new businesses it may be hard to get trade credit because they have limited operating history but if they shop around they might find a supplier that will offer them a small credit limit to begin with. If they can make payments on time and prove to the suppliers they are reliable then it is possible the credit limit will increase. However the downfall of this source is, if you do not pay the supplier back on time you will get a bad reputation in the industry. If you constantly make late payments then the suppliers can withdraw this facility and ask for cash payments. It will also be hard for you to get new suppliers because they may be aware of your reputation of late payments; this should be  avoided at all costs. Trade credit is a good source of finance being interest free and it can help you build good credit history. This will be useful for getting bank loans or using the overdraft facility. Business credit cards are useful for short term borrowing. It is similar to using trade credit. If you pay for goods with a credit card, you will receive a statement once a month with the amounts spent in the last month. You will be given a time to pay for what you spent. If the amount is paid off in full you won’t have to pay any interest charges. Although, you do have the alternative of paying a minimum amount in which case you will have to pay interest on the remaining amount owed. This source of finance is recommended for new businesses as it gives them time to receive money from sales before they have to pay their expenses. It is also a good option for existing businesses but new businesses will tend to use it more to their advantage because it helps to maintain their cash flow and makes it easier for them to get started. An example of this source is if I have just opened a Chinese take away then I can use my business credit card to buy stock. Once I have sold all my stock and I can pay the amount in full then I will get an interest free loan. Business credit cards have some advantages. It helps track purchases because you will get a statement each month which shows what the business has spent money on. You can get interest free credit if you pay the balance by the due date. With a business credit card being so convenient it does have its disadvantages. The card can be fixed with high interest rates and if you make late payments or failure to make a payments it can resolve in the interest rate to rise. This can have a significant impact on the companies’ credit history and rating. This source is very useful although you should avoid making late payments because if you constantly have debt on the credit card, it can cost the business more money by paying interest rates. You will have to clear all debt before you can take advantage of the interest free credit again. You should always make payments on time to take advantage of this source. Failure to make payments can cause the business to get bad credit which means it will be harder to use other borrowing facilities in the future such as bank loans and it can harm the businesses’ reputation. A business should take full advantage of trade credit and credit cards for short term financing. They are both very similar and suitable for new and existing businesses. However, I recommend using trade credit over credit cards because repayments are more flexible to a supplier than to a bank. I mean if you pay your credit card bills late you will be charged with interest but some suppliers are flexible with their payment and they can possibly excuse a late payment. Although, you should always try to make payments on time to avoid damaging company reputation and having bad credit history. Retained profits are considered to be a cheaper source of finance than bank loans and mortgages. It is the best option available to help an existing company expand because it doesn’t carry any interest rates which means more capital for the business. If the business fails after taking out a bank loan and they can’t repay the loan, they can destroy their credit rating, making it difficult or impossible to get loans in the future. If retained profits are used and the business fails then it is just the companies’ investment that will be lost. For a new business, venture capital is considered to be the best source of long term finance. It is not only the investor’s money that is important but their skills and experience is crucial and could be the difference between a successful business and an unsuccessful one. If you are planning to start up your own business you need an owner’s capital in order to secure a bank loan. Once the business starts operating it will be able to secure higher loans and take advantage of the retained profits. The retained profits can help the company expand without carrying any interest rates meaning more capital for the business. Trade credit comes in when the business is set up and you want to start selling products. You should shop around and find a good supplier that will offer you this source and if it’s used appropriately you will find it very convenient. These sources should help you succeed in your business. Investopedia. (2014) Opportunity Cost. Available at: http://www.investopedia.com/terms/o/opportunitycost.asp Barclays. (2014) Your Loan Options. Available at: http://www.barclays.co.uk/Loans/P1242557963420 Money Supermarket. (2014) Advantages and disadvantages of mortgages. Available at: http://www.moneysupermarket.com/mortgages/advantages-and-disadvantages/ Gov.uk. (2014) Business finance explained. Loans. Available at: https://www.gov.uk/business-finance-explained/loans Tutor2u. (2012) Source of Finance – Retained Profits. Available at: http://tutor2u.net/business/finance/retained_profit.html eHow. (2014) Advantages and disadvantages of sale of assets. Available at: http://www.ehow.co.uk/info_8615419_advantages-disadvantages-sale-assets.html Tutor2u. (2012) What is share capital? Available at: http://www.tutor2u.net/blog/index.php/business-studies/comments/qa-what-is-share-capital NI Business Info. (2014) Advantages and disadvantages of equity finance. Available at: https://www.nibusinessinfo.co.uk/content/advantages-and-disadvantages-equity-finance Wikipedia. (2014) Trade Credit. Available at: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trade_credit Biz Help 24. (2014) Overdraft finance Advantages and disadvantages . Available at: http://www.bizhelp24.com/money/business-finance/overdraft-finance-advantages-and-disadvantages.html Gov.uk (2014) Business finance explained. Overdrafts. Available at: https://www.gov.uk/business-finance-explained/overdrafts Money Supermarket. (2014) Advantages and disadvantages of credit cards. Available at: http://www.moneysupermarket.com/credit-cards/advantages-and-disadvantages/ Go Compare. (2014) Beginners guide to credit cards. Available at: http://www.gocompare.com/credit-cards/credit-cards-explained/

Past Movements in Education and Analysis of Curricuar Reforms Essay Example for Free

Past Movements in Education and Analysis of Curricuar Reforms Essay For an individual, it must be treated as a continuous process that should not end when graduation rites in each particular level of schooling are being held. True education is life, it must always be a part of our daily living, whether through formal or informal means. Educational systems in general, and educational curriculum in particular, also need not to be static. The curriculum should respond to the demands of a fast-changing society. To some extent, it should also be global or internationally-aligned. These are the reasons why foreign and local educational educators in the past and until now have been introducing educational reforms and innovations. They have been searching means to address the problems being met in the implementation of a certain curriculums and to ensure the total development of every learner. I. The Past Movements for Social Change in the School System Social change affects education. Centuries ago, pioneers of education have sought to introduce renewal in education. Their ideas were far ahead than the actual renewal that took place later on. Among them were Commenius, Condorcet, Rousseau, Pestalozzi, Froebel, Dewey, Drecoly, Montessori and Freinet. 1. Johann Amos Commenius -â€Å"Father of Modern Education† Most permanent educational influences: a. practical educational work Comenius was first a teacher and an organizer of schools, not only among his own people, but later in Sweden, and to a slight extent in Holland. In his Didactica Magna (Great Didactic), he outlined a system of schools that is the exact counterpart of the existing American system of kindergarten, elementary school, secondary school, college, and university. Didactica Magna is an educational treatise which aimed to seek and find a method of instruction by which teachers may teach less but learners may learn more, by which the school may be the scene of less noise, aversion, and useless labor, but of more leisure, enjoyment and solid progress; and through which the Christian community may have less darkness, perplexity (confusion) and dissension (disagreement), but on the other hand, more light, orderliness, peace and rest. b. formulating the general theory of education In this respect he is the forerunner of Rousseau, Pestalozzi, Froebel, etc. and is the first to formulate that idea of â€Å"education according to nature† so influential during the latter part of the eighteenth and early part of the nineteenth century. c. the subject matter and method of education -exerted through a series of textbooks of an entirely new nature His published works: Janua Linguarum Reserata (The Gateway of Language Unlocked) contained his convictio n (certainty) that one of the prerequisites for effective educational reform was a fundamental change in language of instruction. Orbis Pictus (The World of Sensible Things Pictured) contributed to the development of the principles of audio-visual interaction. It was the first successful applications of illustrations to the work of teaching, but not the first illustrated book for children. Schola Ludus (School as Play) a detailed exposition of the doctrine that all learning should be made interesting, dramatic and stimulating. These texts were all based on the same fundamental ideas: (1) learning foreign languages through the vernacular; (2) obtaining ideas through objects rather than words; (3) starting with objects most familiar to the child to introduce him to both the new language and the more remote world of objects: (4) giving the child a comprehensive knowledge of his environment, physical and social, as well as instruction in religious, moral, and classical subjects; (5) making this acquisition of a compendium of knowledge a pleasure rather than a task; and (6) making instruction universal. He also developed the pansophic scheme, the view that education should take the whole of human knowledge as its universe. For him, truth was indivisible and was to be seen as a whole. Thus by relating each subject to every other subject and to general principles, pansophia was to make the learner capable of wisdom. 2. Marquis De Condorcet Marie-Jean-Antoine-Nicolas de Caritat took his title Marquis de Condorcet from the town of Condorcet in Dauphine. He advocated that the aims of education were: o cultivate in each generation the physical, intellectual and moral facilities and, thereby contribute to the general and gradual improvement of the human race. He envisioned a national system of public education designed to develop the natural talents of all, making real equality possible. His proposals of the five levels of public instructions areas follows: 1. Elementary- for the teaching of the ‘elements’ of all knowledge (reading, writing, arithmetic, morals, economics and n atural science)and would be compulsory for all four years 2. Secondary school- of three years’ duration, teaching grammar, history and geography, one foreign language, the mechanical arts, law and mathematics. The teaching at this and the first level would be non-specialized. 3. Institutes- responsible for ‘substituting reasoning for eloquence and books for speech, and for bringing philosophy and the physical science methodology into the moral sciences’. The teaching at this level would be more specialized. Pupils would choose their own course of study (at least two courses a year) from among four classes: mathematics and physics, moral and political sciences, science as applied to the arts, and literature and fine arts. 4. Lycee the equivalent of universities, with the same classes as the institutes and ‘where all the sciences are taught in full. It is there that scholars-teachers receive their further training’. Education at this and the first three levels was to be entirely free of charge. 5. National Society of Science and the Arts a research institute responsible for supervising the formal education system as a whole and for appointing teachers. Its role would be one of scientific and pedagogical research. 3. Jean Jacques Rousseau According to the history of education, he was the first great writer to insist that education should be based upon the nature of the child. Rousseau’s Emile is a kind of half treatise, half novel that tells the life story of a fictional man named Emile. In the history of education, the significant contributions of Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi are: 1) his educational philosophy and instructional method that encouraged harmonious intellectual, moral, and physical development Pestalozzis most systematic work, How Gertrude Teaches Her Children (1801) was a critique of conventional schooling and a prescription for educational reform. Rejecting corporal punishment, rote memorization, and bookishness, Pestalozzi envisioned schools that were homelike institutions where teachers actively engaged students in learning by sensory experiences. Such schools were to educate individuals who were well rounded intellectually, morally, and physically. Through engagement in activities, students were to learn useful vocations that complemented their other studies. 2) his methodology of empirical sensory learning, especially through object lessons Pestalozzi designed object lessons in which children, guided by teachers, examined the form (shape), number (quantity and weight) of objects, and named them after direct experience with them. 3) his use of activities, excursions, and nature studies that anticipated Progressive education. He also emphasized the importance of the nature of the child and propounded (advocated) that in the educational process, the child must be thought in relation to the subject matter. He sought to understand the nature of the child and to build his teaching around the natural, progressive and harmonious development of all the powers and capacities. He is an advocate of each man’s right to education and of society’s duty to implement that right and pave the way to universal national education. His motto Learning by head, hand and heart is still a key principle in successful 21st-century schools. 5. Friedrich Froebel The German educator, Friedrich Froebel, was one of these pioneers of early childhood educational reform. Froebel’s educational principles: a) free self-activity As an educator, Froebel believed that stimulating voluntary self-activity in the young child was the necessary form of pre-school education (Watson, 1997a). Self-activity is defined as the development of qualities and skills that make it possible to take an invisible idea and make it a reality; self-activity involves formulating a purpose, planning out that purpose, and then acting on that plan until the purpose is realized (Corbett, 1998a). Corbett suggests that one of Froebels significant contributions to early childhood education was his theory of introducing play as a means of engaging children in self-activity for the purpose of externalizing their inner natures. ) creativity Froebel designed a series of instructional materials that he called gifts and occupations, which demonstrated certain relationships and led children in comparison, testing, and creative exploration activities (Watson, 1997b). A gift was an object provided for a child to play withsuch as a sphere, cube, or cylinderwhich helped the child to understand and internalize the concepts of shape, dimension, size, and their relationships (Staff, 1998). The occupations were items such as aints and clay which the children could use to make what they wished; through the occupations, children externalized the concepts existing within their creative minds (Staff, 1998). Therefore, through the childs own self-activity and creative imaginative play, the child would begin to understand both the inner and outer properties of things as he moves through the developmental stages of the educational process. c) social participation A third component of Froebels educational plan involved working closely with the family unit. Froebel believed that parents provided the first as well as the most consistent educational influence in a childs life. Since a childs first educational experiences occur within the family unit, he is already familiar with the home d) motor expression Motor expression, which refers to learning by doing as opposed to following rote instructions, is a very important aspect of Froebels educational principles. Froebel did not believe that the child should be placed into societys mold, but should be allowed to shape his own mold and grow at his own pace through the developmental stages of the educational process. 6. John Dewey He contributed the educational philosophy which maintains that education is life, education is growth and education is a continuous reconstruction of human experiences from the beginning to the end of life. He was the spokes person of progressive education which states that aims have significance only for persons, not for processes such as education, and arise only in response to problematic situations in ongoing activities. Aims are to be viewed as anticipated outcomes of transactions, as intrinsic aspects of the process of problem-solving, and as a motivating force behind the individual’s approach to problem-solving situations. The Progressive Education Association, inspired by Dewey’s ideas, later codified his doctrines as follows: a. The conduct of the pupils shall be governed by themselves, according to the social needs of the community. b. Interest shall be the motive for all work. c. Teachers will inspire a desire for knowledge, and will serve as guides in the investigations undertaken, rather than as task-masters. d. Scientific study of each pupil’s development, physical, mental, social and spiritual, is absolutely essential to the intelligent direction of his development. . Greater attention is paid to the child’s physical needs, with greater use of the out-of-doors. f. Cooperation between school and home will fill all needs of the child’s development such as music, dancing, play and other extra-curricular activities. g. All progressive schools will look upon their work as of the laboratory type, giving freely to the sum of educational knowledge the results of their experi ments in child culture. He believed that education has two sides: the psychological and the social on the same plane. Education must start from the psychological nature of the child as the basis for directing his energies into totally useful channels. Schools must be set up to include bond the individual and social goals. The needs of a new society are to be taken into consideration in modifying methods and curriculum. 7. Ovide Decroly He influenced instruction in the kindergarten, the aim of which was to guide the child’s desire for activity and to give him a sense of discipline and norms for his social behavior (same with Dewey) 8. Maria Montessori Maria Montessori left a long lasting mark on education around the world.

Relationship Between The Income Inequality And Development Economics Essay

Relationship Between The Income Inequality And Development Economics Essay Income inequality within the majority of developing countries has been rising in some cases, sharply over the years. Various studies such as; (Cornia 2004, Birdsall 2005, Van der Hoeven 2008) concluded that the last two decades have witnessed a widespread and symmetric rise in within-country inequality in developing countries. This persistence rise in income inequality in many developing economies has made it difficult to reduce poverty and promote economic development. There is a growing consensus that excessive inequality can stunt growth itself (Birdsall 2005). The effects are not only economic; there are also political and social consequences of income inequality. Alesina and Peroti (1996) found that high income inequality can also have undesirable political and social consequences. Where the institutions of government are weak, inequality exacerbates the problem of creating and maintaining accountable government, increasing the probability of economic and social policies that i nhibit growth, and poverty reduction and where social institutions are fragile, inequality further discourages the civic and social life that undergirds collective decision-making which is necessary to the functioning of healthy societies (Birdsall 2005). Put differently, high inequality is associated with higher crime rates, lower life expectancy and conflicts. Also According to Alexis de Tocqueville ([1835-40] 1961, 302), Almost all of the revolutions which have changed the aspect of nations have been made to consolidate or to destroy social inequality. Making generalizations about the causes of income inequality in developing countries must be done with care. The situation in each nation depends on country-specific circumstances and policy mixes. Yet, it is clear that there are some common factors behind the widespread surges in income inequality around the world. It has been noted that a worsening situation in the traditional causes of inequality such as land concentration, urban bias and inequality in education has not caused the recent increases in inequality in developing countries, although these factors still do explain most of the variation in cross-country inequality (Cornia 1994). Rather, the evidence points to new causes associated with neo-liberal policy reforms that have increasingly been adopted in transitional and developing countries (Cornia and Court 2001, Birdsall 2005, Van der Hoeven 2008, UNRISD 2010). The most important of such policy reforms are macro-economic reforms including, inter alia, financial and labour market liberalization, privatization, and reforms in the tax and transfer systems. Despite the numerous studies on income inequality, the extent to which it affects development hasnt yet been fully explored. Uganda among other developing countries has been experiencing a gradual and sustained economic growth and poverty reduction over the years. Currently the country is growing at a rate of 6.4% (CIA 2011). The benefits of growth, however, are not being distributed equally. In all regions of the country, income and consumption are growing at a slower rate in rural areas than in their urban counterparts (Ssewanyana N. S. et al, 2009). Moreover, both rural and urban areas are experiencing growing inequality between the top and bottom income quintiles (Appleton Ssewanyana, 2003). According to Valentine (1993), inequality increases as the incomes of the asset-rich rise at a faster rate than those of the asset-poor. Some policies such as privatisation and financial liberalization may contribute to concentrate the ownership of resources among the few hence affecting the distribution of present and future income which then might affect the development of a country. This study therefore will seek to analyse the causes of income inequality and establish its effects on development. Trends in income inequality in Uganda will also be analysed to establish clearly how its increase or decrease has affected the level of the countrys development. This study will also explore the consequences of income inequality to Uganda. Empirical studies, such as Appleton (2001), and Appleton Ssewanyana (2003), provide limited policy guidance on how to address the inequality problem in Uganda. The thesis will also look at policy options to curb the rising income inequality levels in Uganda hence fostering development. Statement of the Problem In order for Uganda whose economy is experiencing economic growth, to continue on a straight and consistent development path, one of the issues that have to be taken into great consideration is the growing disparity in income distribution. Currently the country is experiencing a high level of income inequality with most of the income being concentrated in the hands of the few. If this state of income inequality continues, the development of the country will be greatly affected. Also this disparity in income could lead to social injustices which would have greater consequences on the economy. Research Questions What are the major causes of income inequality in Uganda? Is there a relationship between income inequality and development? What consequences does income inequality pose to Uganda? Scope The study will look at how income has been distributed in Uganda over the years and the countrys level of development in the same years. It will also look at levels of poverty and GDP as a measure of development. Human development will also be taken into consideration while comparing income distribution and improvements in human development of the country. Methodology The study will be based purely on secondary data. It will review journals and books on theories regarding income inequality and development. Statistics from international organisations and Government of Ugandas websites will also be reviewed as part of the study. A comparative analysis of income distribution and Ugandas economic development will be done to assess the relationship between the two variables. Causes of Income Inequality This section looks at the causes of income inequality in Uganda. As highlighted in the introduction section, the rate of income inequality in Uganda has been fluctuating over the years although in an increasing manner. According to the World Bank Gini Index (2011), Ugandas Gini Coefficient was at 44 as of 2009 and rose slightly to 44.3 as of 2011 indicating a rise in income inequality. There is a huge disparity in income distribution in Uganda with a few individuals holding much of the countrys income. The table below shows that as of 2009, 20% of Ugandas population received half of the countrys income indicating a huge disparity in income distribution. Therefore what could be the explanation of the rising income inequality? In response to this question, I discuss the possible causes of income inequality and how they relate to Ugandas case. Table 1: Ugandas income distribution for the years 2006 and 2009 Indicator 2009 2006 Income share held by fourth 20% 20 20.7 Income share held by highest 10% 36.1 34.1 Income share held by highest 20% 50.7 49.3 Income share held by lowest 10% 2.35 2.59 Income share held by lowest 20% 5.84 6.08 Income share held by second 20% 9.64 9.78 Income share held by third 20% 13.8 14.1 Source: World Bank Database Over the years, economists and social scientists have been discussing factors that are responsible for the rising incoming inequality both in developing and developed countries. Some of the identified causes are specific to developing countries and have been discussed from various dimensions. These dimensions range from social, economic to the political causes of income inequality. One of the factors which is familiar with developing and less developed countries and has been associated with rising income inequality is the issue of foreign aid. Developing and less developed countries have been receiving aid since attaining independence yet the question of aid effectiveness is still highly contestable with some studies suggesting that aid hasnt done much to improve the living standards in such countries. Several studies have been conducted to ascertain the association between foreign aid and income inequality. Some studies such as (Herzer and Nunnenkamp, 2012; Alesina and Dollar, 2000) showed that foreign aid contributes to income inequality. However the extent of foreign aids effect on income inequality hasnt been conclusive yet. Donor countries and organisation have been donating large sums of money to developing countries as aid, one of such countries is Uganda, whose ODA (Official Development Assistance) had reached 1.8 billion in 2010 according to Global Hum anitarian Assistance. Despite this figure having risen over the years, some funds which are aimed at improving the well being of the poor actually end up in the hands of a few individuals hence exacerbating the widening income gap in the country. Foreign aid may lead to income inequality through various mechanisms all of which point in the direction of aid money flowing to a particular group of people in a society. Layton and Nielson (2009) in their study titled Aiding Inequality: The Effect of Foreign Aid on Income Inequality, which included Uganda showed that foreign aid has contributed to increases in income inequality in the developing world. In their analysis (although inconclusive), they found that the effect of foreign aid on income inequality is somewhere between zero and weakly positive. They also found that an increase in aid of 10% would increase inequality by 2.5 points which according to them, is substantially significant given the slow moving nature of income inequality. Their study also showed that foreign aid has an impact on income distribution with it favouring mostly rich individuals. Layton and Nielson identified politics as one of the channels through which foreign aid benefits the rich. This finding is s upported by Boone (1996) who stated that all political systems favour a high-income political elite when it comes to income distribution. In most cases this distribution of income is in favour of private and selfish interests of their supporters who are more likely to be societys wealthy and prominent individuals. The assumption here is that these individuals will enable them win subsequent elections in office and also contribute to their campaigns. This creates a widening gap in income inequality with the majority of the population who are poor and supposed to benefit from the aid money usually remaining poor while a few individuals income increasing. With the increase in income, the rich are able to invest and amass more wealth which can lead to a decade of income inequality unless the government embarks on re-distributive policies. Ethnic diversity has also been seen as having a linkage with income inequality. According to Meisenberg (2007), ethnic diversity at certain levels leads to large discrepancies in income distribution. In countries whose ethnicity is diverse such as Uganda, political leaders from a particular ethnic group might favour individuals from such groups both in terms of resource allocations and distribution of opportunities. Such is common in African countries especially those that are undemocratic where political leaders tend to divert funds meant for public services to such individuals. Diversion of funds causes a discrepancy in income distribution since one group is preferred over others hence exposing that group to opportunities such as better jobs and government contracts which allows them to have a higher level of income. Also an interplay between ethnic diversity, politics and institutions contribute to a rise in income inequality Similarly, Milanovic (2003) whose focus was on the political-economy side of the story found that ethnic diversity contributes to income inequality. He found that inequality in African countries is high especially in those countries whose ethnic diversity is high. He added that inequality in such countries is even higher if such countries are undemocratic (This is consistent with Mickiewicz and Gerry (2008) who also discovered that countries introducing sustainable democratic institutions early are characterised by lower inequality), and poor. Millanovic also considers the interplay of ethnic fragmentation, low per capita income and lack of democratic pluralism to be an important determinant of income inequality in Africa. Given the status of developing countries whose ethnicity is diverse and at the same time being recipients of foreign aid, diversion of aid to a particular ethnicity is likely to be much higher. This is likely to contribute to higher income discrepancies especially since the political leaders might divert most of this money to individuals from their ethnicity. Apart from distributing money to people from a particular ethnicity, they will also use the money to directly improve infrastructure in the areas where members of their ethnic group reside. This will ensure that individuals from such areas have better access to certain services, such as; education and health services including better paying jobs; which can guarantee an increase in their income. With only a section of the society being exposed to better services and facilities, the income gap is bound to widen. Another factor which has been cited as a cause of income inequality is Corruption. This is a channel, through which public funds get diverted for private interests. With public funds being siphoned by certain individuals, a country is bound to have a few wealthy individuals while the majority of the population remain poor hence a wide income gap. According to an IMF working paper (May 1998) titled Does Corruption affect Income Inequality and Poverty?, high and rising corruption increases income inequality and poverty by reducing economic growth, the progressivity of the tax system, the level and effectiveness of social spending, and the formation of human capital, and by perpetuating an unequal distribution of asset ownership and unequal access to education. The World of Work report (2008) also suggested a positive relationship between inequality and corruption. According to the First Annual Report on Corruption in Uganda (2010) by the Inspectorate General of Government, corruption remains a hindrance to development and a barrier to poverty reduction in Uganda. The World Bank estimates show that Uganda loses $300 million (Ugx 500 billion) annually to corruption. Likewise, the 2011 Transparency International Perception Index gives Uganda a decimal score of 2.4 on scale of 10, placing it as the 143rd  out of the worlds 183 countries. Currently with the discovery of oil and the prospects of oil revenue in the relatively near future, Uganda is bound to face major challenges with regards to corruption. With evidence showing that corruption accelerates income inequality, then the income gap in Uganda is also bound to widen. Education levels in a country also have an effect on how income is distributed; with those individuals whose level of education is low getting less income compared to their highly educated counterparts. In an economy characterised by globalisation and demand for skilled labour, the less educated tend to receive little pay compared to the highly educated; this exerts income in-equalizing effects. A study by Gregorio and Lee (2002) supports this argument. They found that the level of education of the population in a country has an effect on income distribution. Their study also found that equal distribution of education and higher attainment of education; both have equalizing effects on income distribution. Education levels in Uganda are also unevenly distributed. According to Mugendawala (2012), the Ugandan education system still manifests inequities based on sex, location and income quintile. He further mentioned that the inequities also explain the income gaps in Uganda. The difference in education attainment is also an explanation for the variation in income distribution and inequality levels between urban and rural areas in the country. Mugendawala found that education disparities between rural and urban areas also caused income disparities between the two. Also in terms of socio-economic classes, he found that there is more inequality amongst the poor while more equality prevails among the rich. This could be due to the ability of the rich to afford better education services for their children unlike the poor who are in rural areas with access to free government education whose quality is questionable. With this disparity in access to education, a vicious cycle might be created wh ere the poor remain less educated hence receiving little income while the rich attaining higher education and eventually accessing well paying jobs. This disparity will most likely maintain or accelerate the disparity in incomes over time. Other studies which share the above argument include; Odedokun and Round (2001) who found that a high level of illiteracy (and, hence, low level of skilled workers) exerts in-equalizing effects. Also Ssewanyana et al. (2004) showed that education is as a key factor in explaining most of the observed variations in income in Uganda. In this case, education was seen as a means through which policies that seek to make education accessible could lead to a reduction in income inequality over time. Mickiewicz and Gerry (2008) found that education fosters equality. Other scholars who found that education has income equalizing effects over time included (Morely, 1995; Alderson and Nielsen, 1995; Lee, 2005). According to these studies, the equalizing effect occurs because education allows the poor to escape poverty and enter into jobs that pay better wages. A number of economic factors have also been found to contribute to income disparities; one of such factors is globalisation. Globalisation through a number of variables has also been identified as a determinant of income inequality. Some studies which particularly looked at the effects of trade liberalisation on inequality showed that it might have an income gap widening effect. Meschi and Vivarelli (2009) found total aggregate trade flows to be weakly related to income inequality. However, once total trade flows were disaggregated according to their areas of origin/destination, they found that trade with high income countries worsens income distribution in developing countries, both through imports and exports. Still with regards to trade, Angeles-Castro (2008), found that manufactured exports reduce inequality, whereas the expansion of primary exports does not have any positive effects on income distribution in any way. As of 2011, Uganda manufactured export was 22.9% as a percenta ge of total merchandise exports while export of primary products such as raw material and food accounted for 74%. With developing countries such as Uganda, whose major exports are primary products, the above argument, is bound to hold. Similarly, Breen and Garcà ­a-Peà ±alosa (2005), showed that greater volatility (which they measured by the standard deviation of the rate of growth of output), is associated with a higher degree of income inequality. Breen and Garcà ­a-Peà ±alosa (2005) also examined the effect of volatility on income shares of various quintiles and found that greater volatility results in redistribution from middle income groups (second and third quintiles) to the top-income group (fifth quintile). They also mentioned that an interplay of factors that previous research has shown as determinants of income inequality such as the degree of dualism and the extent of civil liberties together with volatility prove to have a robust impact on the distribution of income. Anyanwu (2011) in his study of International Remittances and Income Inequality in Africa found that, international migrant remittances have a significant positive impact on income inequality. After instrumenting for the possible endogeneity of remittances, he found that a 10 percent increase in remittances as a percentage of GDP will lead, on average, to a 0.013 percent increase in income inequality. Remittances are also contributing greatly to Ugandas economy. According to a Bank of Uganda Report titled International Remittances 2008, remittances increased from US$406 million in the year 2006 to US$732 million in 2008. Income inequality in Uganda could then be explained as being fuelled by international remittances from. In the same study, Anyanwu (2011) found inflation rate as one of the strongest factors influencing income inequality in Africa. This can be substantiated by findings from several works (Bulir, 2001; Easterly and Fischer, 2001) among others which presented evidence correlating high rates of inflation with income inequality and/or poverty. Table 2: Summary of reviewed literature on causes of income inequality Cause Papers Measured variable Effect on Income Inequality Possible problems Foreign Aid The effect of foreign aid on income inequality: Evidence from panel cointegration Herzer and Nunnenkamp, (2012) Foreign Aid and Income Inequality Direct Effect: Foreign Aid exerts an income inequality increasing effect Measures aid using Net Aid  Transfers (NAT) which is problematic for aid research and donor evaluation Aiding Inequality: The Effect of Foreign Aid on Income Inequality, Layton and Nielson, (2009) Foreign Aid and Income Inequality Direct Effect: Foreign aid has a positive effect on income inequality Findings inconclusive Politics and the Effectiveness of Foreign Aid, Boone (1996) Foreign aid and politics Indirect Effect on income inequality: Politics influences allocation of foreign aid. Effects on income inequality not measured Ethnic Diversity Is Inequality in Africa Really Different, Millanovic (2003) Income Inequality and Politics Direct Effect: High ethnic fractionalisation results to high income inequality Findings not satisfactory due to inability to test for ethnicity conclusively Corruption IMF working paper (May 1998): Does Corruption affect Income Inequality and Poverty? Corruption, Income Inequality and poverty Direct Effect: Increase in corruption increases income inequality Education Education and Income Inequality: New Evidence from cross country data. Gregorio and Lee (20020 Education and Income Inequality Education has equalizing effects on income inequality Didnt discuss the issues of reverse causation between variables International Remittances International Remittances and Income Inequality in Africa, Anyanwu (2011) International Remittances and income inequality Direct Effect: International Remittance increases income inequality Inflation International Remittances and Income Inequality in Africa, Anyanwu (2011) International Remittances and income inequality Indirect Effect; International Remittances increase inflation which fuels income inequality Relationship between Income Inequality and Development This section looks at the relationship between income inequality and development. In a bid to ascertain the nature of the relationship, it discusses mechanisms through which income inequality affects or might affect development. Measuring the development of a country can be done using a number of economic and social variables. Such variables include GDP, GDP per capita, life expectancy, and literacy rate among other. The UNDP also developed the Human Development Index which is a compound indicator that uses the above variables to determine the level of human development of a country. In determining the relationship between income inequality and development, the above variables for measuring development are taken into consideration. Studies on the relationship between income inequality and development originated from the groundbreaking research by Simon Kuznets where he studied economic growth and income inequality and came up with a hypothesis that is currently regarded as the Kuznets hypothesis or the inverted U shaped hypothesis. The Kuznets hypothesis formed the basis from which most preceding studies analysed the relationship between income inequality and growth. Kuznets (1955) postulated that in the early stages of development, both a countrys economic growth and its inequality increase. As countries grow and develop, the income gap between the rich and the poor should decrease. Indeed, according to Kuznets, there is a gradual shift from a low-inequality, low-income, agricultural economy, towards a high-income and medium-inequality economy characterized by industrial production. This shift would lead to the inverted U-shaped relationship between real GDP per capita and inequality. Kuznets argues that in th e initial period, agriculture represents the majority of a countrys economy, which is also characterized by low levels of inequality. According to Kuznets, a shift towards the secondary and the tertiary sectors has in essence two effects in the short run. The first effect is that it accelerates economic growth leading to higher levels of GDP per capita. The second and most dramatic effect is that this increases the level of inequality. Consequently, in the initial stages of economic development, the level of GDP per capita and inequality are positively correlated. As countries develop they shift more and more resources from agriculture to industry (and later to services), and this will in time decrease the income gap between the industry and agriculture simply because there will be more and more workers working in the industrial sector. Consequently, the long run relationship between inequality and GDP per capita is negative. The Kuznets hypothesis therefore showed causality from de velopment to income inequality. Although several investigations have found some support for the Kuznets hypothesis (e.g. Oswang, (1994); Milanovic, (1994); Fishlow, (1995) as well as Ali, (1998), some studies such as Ahluwalia, (1976); Bruno, Ravallion and Squire, (1995) and UNCTAD, (1997) however, found no such relationship between growth rates and income inequality. Deininger and Squire (1996) also did not find any evidence for the existence of such (Kuznets Relationship) a relationship between development and inequality. This shows that not all economies follow the inverted U shaped hypothesis during their development path. Apart from Kuznets, several scholars have shown the relationship between income inequality and development mostly through a number of social variables such as; health and education and also through economic variables such as; taxation, credit markets and investment. The political mechanism has also been emphasised as one through which income inequality is associated with development. Most literature on the subject shows evidence of income inequality being detrimental to development. The World Banks World Development Report (2006) says in its introduction that there is considerable evidence that equity is also instrumental to the pursuit of long-term prosperity in aggregate terms for society as a whole. This goes a long way in saying that income inequality is detrimental to the welfare of a society. Galor and Zeira (1993) found that inequality affects growth through credit market imperfections for financing investment in education. In this case, their finding was in regards to the poor who face borrowing constraints in financing education and hence in accumulating human capital. This has further effects on investment by the poor since they are forced to forego human capital even if the investments have a high rate of return. Therefore, the greater the degree of wealth and income inequality, the greater the number of people for which the constraints would be binding and, therefore, the lower is the stock of human capital in the economy. Economic growth is presumed to be enhanced through human capital accumulation. Therefore with less or no human capital accumulation, growth tends to be affected. Low levels of human capital formation are associated with low levels of human development which leads to low levels of development especially among the poor. However, the effect of this c hannel is weaker if education is being financed by the state of if its made compulsory; for example, in a country like Uganda where primary and secondary school education is being financed by the government. The poor though would still find challenges in financing higher education. With education being seen as a mechanism through which the poor can escape poverty, its limited accessibility by the poor has huge impact on the development of the country. Perotti (1996) after carefully examining the various channels through which income inequality may affect economic growth provided support for the Galor-Zeira hypothesis showing that inequality is indeed associated with lower level of human capital formation, and lower human capital formation is associated with lower levels of economic growth. Further support for the education channel is advanced by Deninger and Squire (1998) who utilized the distribution of land as a proxy for the distribution of assets and found that initial inequality has a significant adverse effect on education and economic growth. Moreover, consistent with the theories advanced by the credit market imperfections approach that these imperfections ought to have a larger effect on the investment decisions of individuals with lower income they find that initial inequality primarily hurts the poor. From a social perspective, various studies have shown that social political unrest hurts development. Countries that have experienced such unrests provide evidence of the extent to which their development is affected. Alesina and Rodrik (1993) after studying a set of 70 countries found quite solidly that income inequality increases socio-political instability which in turn decreases investment. Subsequently, Alesina and Perotti (1996) linked inequality to social political unrest where they showed the likely negative effects of high inequality on economic growth through increased crime, social unrest and political instability. Despite its effect on growth, social political unrest also has an effect on development, first since all development activities will be halted in areas experiencing the unrest. This will affect various social variables such as education, health and access to basic services. These unrests tend to cause death and destruction of property in countries where they hap pen. Also institutions in such countries especially when the unrests are severe tend not to function optimally. A countrys development therefore either gets retarded or remains stagnant as a result of the unrests, even the economy ceases to grow. Foreign Direct Investment to such countries gets halted since investors are scared of investing in countries that are unruly. All these factors combined have far reaching dangers on development. Alesina and Rodrik (1994) argued that inequality affects the economy through endogenous fiscal policy or political economy. They argue that a high level of inequality leads to redistributive fiscal policy in the form of higher government expenditure and distortionary taxation which, in turn, are believed to retard growth. They formed the median voter paradigm which is based on the assumption that political power (e.g. one-person-one-vote in a democratic settin